Communism and Democratic Capitalism

1. From a Christian perspective, why did Marxist Communism fail? The government has too much power of constrains people. Trying to force people and form them to change is not right and does not work in the long run. To give any one party too much power is a bad idea. We are all human and prone to sin. The government needs to help the people and work for the people not rule them. 2. Which is a more Christian form of government, democratic capitalism or democratic socialism? That is a tricky question, and I believe the answer lies somewhere in between the two.The struggle is to regulate but not over regulate the people. People are greedy and in capitalist economy will not give to the poor. That’s were socialism looks better, but then the government is to power full and human nature can affect the government just as it can a civilian. I believe my vote goes for democratic capitalism with less government and a competitive market. 3. What functions does government have to undertake because of fallen human nature? The government has to protect society from itself so to speak.The government becomes responsible for creating laws to protect rights and property. They also become responsible for enforcing these laws and protecting people from others who may steal their things. The government also has to be responsible to take care of the environment since people fail to do it on their own. Another thing I see the government doing is taking care of people who can’t devise the means to take care of themselves. 4. Should Christians concern themselves with the regulatory activities of government? If so, what areas of regulation are most significant?Yes I do believe Christians should concern themselves with regulatory activities. The major one would be discrimination. There needs to be very strict laws guarding against regulation. All of god’s children are created equal and all should be treated fairly and given the basic tenants of life. Also everyone abl e should be able to work and have to opportunity to support themselves and contribute to society. Another regulation that needs to be of concern to Christians is over regulation. Over regulation can lead to many deceitful and bad things when abused by greedy individuals and government.

Filter Innovations Inc Case

2008 > John Dragasevich (president), small water filtration company based out of Toronto, Ontario, considering expansion, increasingly strict regulations on wastewater management implemented by government, invest in new technology (membrane biological reactors)? Industry: > increased demand for water and water treatment, trend expected to continue > market projections reaching $348 billion > demand growing for safe drinking water in developing countries > sustainability challenges and advancements in environmental regulation result in growth of demand for higher water treatment standards > 2008, 1. billion without drinking water, 2. 4 billion not connected to wastewater systems > 40% projected increase in water consumption by 2025, 1/3 of world population affected by water shortage > in Canada, more than $2 billion in sales > largest consumers – municipalities, both products and services > significant portion of market – industrial Competition: > dominated by 2 large mu tli-national companies ( Siemens water tech and Zenon membrane solutions) > competition targeted large users of filtration systems (corporation and municipalities) requiring over 1 million litres/day > Siemens – 2. million in revenue, 6000 employees (150 R&D), serve more than 90% of fortune 500 manufacturing companies, around 100,000 industrial consumers, parent company Siemens AG over 100 billion electronics and engineering company in over 190 countries with 428,000 people, leader in innovation > Zenon – owned by GE, provided a complete range of filtration processes, offered broadest product line in industry, over 100 years of experience, over 300,000 employees in over 100 countries, publically traded with 18 million in revenue > smaller competitors, specialize in niche market, offer sales and support on a specific type of filtration and treatment product Environment: have to meet provincial regulations based on standards set by federal legislation > some environmenta l legislation required wastewater treatment > discharge limits for sewer use, storm sewers, and groundwater seepage; limits vary regionally > wastewater dumped for use of a fertilizer must be treated > stricter legislation raising environmental standards required by companies > many companies require certificate of approval from ministry of environment and energy, validating compliance with all guidelines Filter Innovations Inc: > dragasevich studied marine biology, worked for major supplier of filter presses in NA > extensive experience in industrial process and environmental products, sales manager with GAF (industry leader for filter vessels and bag filters) > 1992, founded Filter Innovations Company: > small industrial water filtration company identifies and supplies treatment solutions for groundwater, wastewater, process water and air > evaluated client`s needs and design appropriate system to meet need, develop and build system, install it, monitor it regularly, offer product support > supplies wide range of environmental products to support filtration systems > goal – prioritize social and environmental responsibilities at all times to ensure that actions positively influence both the community and environment > ongoing R&D development of new technologies for new products and systems; important to be recognized as being at forefront of the leading technology > employs 14 people, sales representatives, technology engineers & technicians, administrative staff > alliance with firms acting as distributors of its products and systems across NA with few sales in Europe and SA > serves 500 clients, FII equipment operational in over 1500 business sites; 80% sales in Canada, 15% sales in US, 5% sales outside of NA > wants to be recognized as primary supplier of environmental equipment and products, offers simple, innovative solutions for air and water treatment; wants to be one-stop shop for all filtration needs, offering timely and cost-effective soluti ons Calco Group: > 2006, FII purchased by CEG (identifies and acquires environmental companies that were leading suppliers of its specific products) > membership with Calco allowed companies to share resources, networks, and knowledge > MLE (groundwater remediation) offers similar products as FII; MLE benefit from sales expertise; FII able to capitalize on MLE strong manufacturing focus Operations: high focus on sales/technical knowledge; high customer-centric outlook; flexibility in meeting needs of customer key to success; unique/comprehensive business structure (engineering, manufacturing, and distributing of various filtration products and systems > commodity products in inventory for quick sale (filter media, off-the-shelf filtration units), other products ordered from suppliers as needed (keep inventory investments and storage costs low) > advantageous membership with CEG and strong supplier networks > customized systems – engage in collaborative design efforts with cli ents and engineers; once designed, system built by manufacturing alliances then installed and supported by FII > offers rental and leasing option; three types interested in this – those who want to test a system before purchase, those who need it for a specific time period only, and those who want to finance system through regular instalment payments Sales: > about 65% of revenues from sale of individual products; customized products represent 35% of sales Consumers: 2 reason for demand – companies pollute above regulated level obligated to avoid environmental penalties; companies recognize opportunity to save money by cleaning/recycling wastewater by reducing disposal costs; demand ranges from short-term, quick-fix to long-term consultation/installation (ongoing monitoring and support) > tend to focus on projects requiring less that 1 million litres/day; able to provide personalized support; larger companies don’t find these projects profitable, less competitio n > customers in 2 equal groups – environmental consulting companies/distributors on behalf of their clients; end users (buy direct from FII) Environmental consultants: > analyse clients’ wastewater treatment needs, recommend solution and help implement it; after assessing need, issue request for RFP from each vendor, use industry expertise to recommend best option for client End user: > no internal capability, FII identify needs, build custom solution to fix problem (incorporating restrictions); if commodity products much more price sensitive choose vendor with lowest price, for custom products price less of a concern and willing to pay; learn through tradeshows, advertising, word-of-mouth, and industry reputation MBR: new, stricter government regulations meant that company’s existing wastewater treatment designs did not meet new guidelines; faced with decision of whether to expand into MBR market > MBR – new technology for wastewater treatment, allow fo r water re-use; different application than FII > MBR designed to treat biological wastewater, predict that MBR system will be used to add reverse osmosis to make water safe for portable water consumption > Europe leading in development > currently best environmental option; FII would benefit from MBR sales and advanced knowhow/expertise with respect to manufacturing, engineering, building, and supporting new systems Potential Customer base: MBR system would be important factor for FII’s profitability; treating wastewater under 10,000 litres/day means government approval to pass building code > testing costs (one time) $200,000; over that volume company only needs certificate of approval available at no cost as customer would pay fee based on percentage of system cost > FII fearful of competition, FII need to target and seek out contracts that would be profitable but not attractive to large competitors MBR competition: > Sanitherm (subsidiary of Peak energy services based in w estern Canada and direct competition with FII, provides turnkey solutions, built, installed and operate various products/systems, hold 3% of MBR market, sold water and wastewater treatment systems globally) > Enviroquip (division of Eimco Water Technologies, hold 30% of MBR market share in NA, operates in Texas, specializes in design and manufacturing, offers full range of equipment for water pollution control, advanced waste treatment, water treatment and sludge handling) Potential Expansion: reputation with MBR will take a while to build, expect sales to be minimal to start but will grow; sales could reach a high of $500,000 (before installation) in 1st year, reaching several million in following years > additional revenues (half of each system) for installation paid at beginning with allowance of 90 days COGS > MBR cost average of 35% f system sale (20% for membrane and 80% for fabrication) > membrane purchase from supplier (SGR AQUIRIS in Europe), minimum start-up membrane inven tory of $25,000 on hand and had to pay cash upon receipt > fabrication components bought from member of Calco, extended credit terms and alwys paid in 60 day, transportation paid for by FII and cost 5% of COGS Other Expenses: need to hire technology expert ($48,000), and support person ($38,000) > dragsevich and other managers have to co-ordinate with suppliers and customers to monitor new business in terms of R&D; 20% of time spent on MBRs ($30,000) > more space needed for inventory and personnel, operates in facility that allows for lease of additional adjacent units for expansion; $2,250/month/unit; utility $180/month > important to brand itself properly to gain recognition as reliable supplier of MBR business; planned an additional $6,400 annually MBR marketing > need to purchase software modelling program for $18,000, beneficial for 3 years and amortized using straight-line with zero salvage value > paid for advertising, attends tradeshows, provided articles; 25% of costs would directly relate to new MBR business; plan to subscribe to various publications, advertise and attend tradeshows that specialize in MBR; if sales reached 1 million would need to hire s MBR sales manager ($70,000) Conclusion: is it right time to get into MBR? Wise investment? Sales projection may be overly optimistic and it could vary highly depending on ability to brand itself

The Lost Duke of Wyndham Chapter Six

Jack had always prided himself on being able to spot the irony in any situation, but as he stood in the Belgrave drawing room – correction, one of the Belgrave drawing rooms, surely there were dozens – he could find nothing but stark, cold reality. He'd spent six years as an officer in His Majesty's army, and if he'd learned one thing from his years on the battlefield, it was that life could, and frequently did, turn on a single moment. One wrong turn, one missed clue, and he could lose an entire company of men. But once he returned to Britain, he'd somehow lost sight of that. His life was a series of small decisions and insignificant encounters. It was true that he was living a life of crime, which meant he was always dancing a few steps ahead of the hangman's noose, but it wasn't the same. No one's life depended upon his actions. No one's livelihood, even. There was nothing serious about robbing coaches. It was a game, really, played by men with too much education and too little direction. Who would have thought that one of his insignificant decisions – to take the Lincoln road north instead of south – would lead to this? Because one thing was for certain, his carefree life on the road was over. He suspected that Wyndham would be more than happy to watch him ride away without a word, but the dowager would not be so accommodating. Miss Eversleigh's assurances aside, he was quite certain the old bat would go to extensive lengths to keep him on a leash. Maybe she would not turn him over to the authorities, but she could certainly tell the world that her long-lost grandson was gadding about the countryside robbing coaches. Which would make it damned difficult to continue in his chosen profession. And if he was truly the Duke of Wyndham†¦ God help them all. He was beginning to hope that his aunt had lied. Because no one wanted him in a position of such authority, least of all himself. â€Å"Could someone please explain†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He took a breath and stopped, pressing his fingers against his temples. It felt as if an entire battalion had marched across his forehead. â€Å"Could someone explain the family tree?† Because shouldn't someone have known if his father had been the heir to a dukedom? His aunt? His mother? Himself? â€Å"I had three sons,† the dowager said crisply. â€Å"Charles was the eldest; John, the middle; and Reginald the last. Your father left for Ireland just after Reginald married† – her face took on a visible expression of distaste, and she jerked her head toward Wyndham – â€Å"his mother.† â€Å"She was a Cit,† Wyndham said, with no expression whatsoever. â€Å"Her father owned factories. Piles and piles of them.† One of his brows lifted. Very slightly. â€Å"We own them now.† The dowager's lips tightened, but she did not acknowledge his interruption. â€Å"We were notified of your father's death in July of 1790.† Jack nodded tightly. He had been told the same. â€Å"One year after that, my husband and my eldest son died of a fever. I did not contract the ailment. My youngest son was no longer living at Belgrave, so he, too, was spared. Charles had not yet married, and we believed John to have died without issue. Thus Reginald became duke.† She paused, but other than that expressed no emotion. â€Å"It was not expected.† Everyone looked at Wyndham. He said nothing, â€Å"I will remain,† Jack said quietly, because he didn't see as he had any other choice. And maybe it wouldn't hurt to learn a thing or two of his father. A man ought to know where he comes from. That was what his uncle had always said. Jack was beginning to wonder if he'd been offering forgiveness – in advance. Just in case he decided one day that he wished to be a Cavendish. Of course, Uncle William hadn't met these Cavendishes. If he had, he might've revised that statement entirely. â€Å"Most judicious of you,† the dowager said, clapping her hands together. â€Å"Now then, we – â€Å" â€Å"But first,† Jack cut in, â€Å"I must return to the inn to collect my belongings.† He glanced around the drawing room, almost laughing at the opulence. â€Å"Meager though they are.† â€Å"Nonsense,† the dowager said briskly. â€Å"Your things will be replaced.† She looked down her nose at his traveling costume. â€Å"With items of far greater quality, I might add.† â€Å"I wasn't asking your permission,† Jack said lightly. He did not like to allow his anger to reveal itself in his voice. It did put a man at a disadvantage. â€Å"Nonethe – â€Å" â€Å"Furthermore,† Jack added, because really, he didn't wish to hear her voice any more than he had to, â€Å"I must make explanations to my associates.† At that he looked over at Wyndham. â€Å"Nothing approaching the truth,† he added dryly, lest the duke assume that he intended to spread rumors throughout the county. â€Å"Don't disappear,† the dowager directed. â€Å"I assure you, you will regret it.† â€Å"There's no worry of that,† Wyndham said blandly. â€Å"Who would disappear with the promise of a dukedom?† Jack's jaw tightened, but he forced himself to let it pass. The afternoon did not need another fistfight. And then – bloody hell – the duke abruptly added, â€Å"I will accompany you.† Oh, good God. That was the last thing he needed. Jack swung around to face him, lifting one dubious brow. â€Å"Need I worry for my safety?† Wyndham stiffened visibly, and Jack, who had been trained to notice even the smallest of details, saw that both of his fists clenched at his sides. So he'd insulted the duke. At this point, and considering the bruises he was likely to find staining his throat, he didn't care. He turned to Miss Eversleigh, offering her his most self-effacing smile. â€Å"I am a threat to his very identity. Surely any reasonable man would question his safety.† â€Å"No, you're wrong!† she cried out. â€Å"You misjudge him. The duke – â€Å" She shot a horrified look at Wyndham, and they all were forced to share her discomfort when she realized what she'd said. But she plowed on, determined girl that she was. â€Å"He is as honorable a man as I have ever met,† she continued, her voice low and fervent. â€Å"You would never come to harm in his company.† Her cheeks had flushed with passion, and Jack was struck by the most acidic thought. Was there something between Miss Eversleigh and the duke? They resided in the same house, or castle, as it were, with only an embittered old lady for company. And while the dowager was anything but senile, Jack could not imagine that there was any lack of opportunity to engage in a dalliance under her nose. He watched Miss Eversleigh closely, his eyes falling to her lips. He'd surprised himself when he kissed her the night before. He hadn't meant to, and he certainly had never done such a thing before whilst attempting to rob a coach. It had seemed the most natural thing in the world – to touch her chin, tilt her face up toward his, and brush his lips against hers. It had been soft, and fleeting, and it had taken him until this moment to realize just how deeply he wanted more. He looked at Wyndham, and his jealousy must have shown on his face because his newly discovered cousin looked coolly amused as he said, â€Å"I assure you, whatever violent urges I possess, I shall not act upon them.† â€Å"That is a terrible thing to say,† Miss Eversleigh responded. â€Å"But honest,† Jack acknowledged with a nod. He did not like this man, this duke who had been brought up to view the world as his private domain. But he appreciated honesty, no matter the source. And as Jack looked him in the eye, there seemed to develop an unspoken agreement. They did not have to be friends. They did not even have to be friendly. But they would be honest. Which suited Jack just fine. By Grace's calculations, the men ought to have returned within ninety minutes, two hours at most. She had not spent much time in a saddle, so she was not the best judge of speed, but she was fairly certain that two men on horseback could reach the posting inn in something less than an hour. Then Mr. Audley would need to retrieve his belongings, which could not take very long, could it? And then – â€Å"Get away from the window,† the dowager snapped. Grace's lips tightened with irritation, but she managed to return her expression to one of placidity before she turned around. â€Å"Make yourself useful,† the dowager said. Grace glanced this way and that, trying to decode the dowager's order. She always had something specific in mind, and Grace hated it when she was forced to guess. â€Å"Would you like me to read to you?† she asked. It was the most pleasant of her duties; they were currently reading Pride and Prejudice, which Grace was enjoying immensely, and the dowager was pretending not to like at all. The dowager grunted. It was a no grunt. Grace was fluent in this method of communication. She took no particular pride in this skill. â€Å"I could pen a letter,† she suggested. â€Å"Weren't you planning to respond to the recent missive from your sister?† â€Å"I can write my own letters,† the dowager said sharply, even though they both knew her spelling was atrocious. Grace always ended up rewriting all of her correspondence before it was posted. Grace took a deep breath and then let it out slowly, the exhale shuddering through her. She did not have the energy to untangle the inner workings of the dowager's mind. Not today. â€Å"I'm hot,† the dowager announced. Grace did not respond. She was hoping none was necessary. And then the dowager picked something up off a nearby table. A fan, Grace realized with dismay, just as the dowager snapped it open. Oh, please, no. Not now. The dowager regarded the fan, a rather festive blue one, with Chinese paintings in black and gold. Then she snapped it back shut, clearly just to make it easier for her to hold it before her like a baton. â€Å"You may make me more comfortable,† she said. Grace paused. It was only for a moment, probably not even a full second, but it was her only means of rebellion. She could not say no, and she could not even allow her distaste to show in her expression. But she could pause. She could hold her body still for just enough time to make the dowager wonder. And then, of course, she stepped forward. â€Å"I find the air quite pleasant,† she said once she had assumed her position at the dowager's side. â€Å"That is because you are pushing it about with the fan.† Grace looked down at her employer's pinched face. Some of the lines were due to age, but not the ones near her mouth, pulling her lips into a perpetual frown. What had happened to this woman to make her so bitter? Had it been the deaths of her children? The loss of her youth? Or had she simply been born with a sour disposition? â€Å"What do you think of my new grandson?† the dowager asked abruptly. Grace froze, then quickly regained her composure and resumed fanning. â€Å"I do not know him well enough to form an opinion,† she answered carefully. The dowager continued to look straight ahead as she answered, â€Å"Nonsense. All of the best opinions are formed in an instant. You know that very well. ‘Else you'd be married to that repulsive little cousin of yours, wouldn't you?† Grace thought of Miles, ensconced in her old home. She had to admit, every now and then the dowager got things exactly right. â€Å"Surely you have something to say, Miss Eversleigh.† The fan rose and fell three times before Grace decided upon, â€Å"He seems to have a buoyant sense of humor.† â€Å"Buoyant.† The dowager repeated the word, her voice curious, as if she were testing it out on her tongue. â€Å"An apt adjective. I should not have thought of it, but it is fitting.† It was about as close to a compliment as the dowager ever got. â€Å"He is rather like his father,† the dowager continued. Grace moved the fan from one hand to the other, murmuring, â€Å"Is he?† â€Å"Indeed. Although if his father had been a bit more†¦ buoyant, we'd not be in this mess, would we?† Grace choked on air. â€Å"I'm so sorry, ma'am. I should have chosen my words more carefully.† The dowager did not bother to acknowledge the apology. â€Å"His levity is much like his father. My John was never one to allow a serious moment to pass him by. He had the most cutting wit.† â€Å"I would not say that Mr. Audley is cutting,† Grace said. His humor was far too sly. â€Å"His name is not Mr. Audley, and of course he is,† the dowager said sharply. â€Å"You're too besotted to see it.† â€Å"I am not besotted,† Grace protested. â€Å"Of course you are. Any girl would be. He is most handsome. Pity about the eyes, though.† â€Å"What I am,† Grace said, resisting the urge to point out that there was nothing wrong with green eyes, â€Å"is overset. It has been a most exhausting day. And night,† she added after a thought. The dowager shrugged. â€Å"My son's wit was legendary,† she said, setting the conversation back to where she wished it. â€Å"You wouldn't have thought it cutting, either, but that was simply because he was far too clever. It is a brilliant man who can make insult without the recipient even realizing.† Grace thought that rather sad. â€Å"What is the point, then?† â€Å"The point?† The dowager blinked several times in rapid succession. â€Å"Of what?† â€Å"Of insulting someone.† Grace shifted the fan again, then shook out her free hand; her fingers were cramped from clutching the handle. â€Å"Or I should say,† she amended, since she was quite sure the dowager could find many good reasons to cut someone down, â€Å"of insulting someone with intention of their not noticing it?† The dowager still did not look at her, but Grace could see that she rolled her eyes. â€Å"It is a source of pride, Miss Eversleigh. I wouldn't expect you to understand.† â€Å"No,† Grace said softly. â€Å"I wouldn't.† â€Å"You don't know what it means to excel at something.† The dowager pursed her lips and stretched her neck slightly from side to side. â€Å"You couldn't know.† Which had to be as cutting an insult as any, except that the dowager seemed completely unaware she'd done it. There was irony in there somewhere. There had to be. â€Å"We live in interesting times, Miss Eversleigh,† the dowager commented. Grace nodded silently, turning her head to the side so that the dowager, should she ever choose to turn her head in her direction, would not see the tears in her eyes. Her parents had lacked the funds to travel, but theirs had been wandering hearts, and the Eversleigh home had been filled with maps and books about faraway places. Like it was yesterday, Grace remembered the time they had all been sitting in front of the fire, engrossed in their own reading, and her father looked up from his book and exclaimed, â€Å"Isn't this marvelous? In China, if you wish to insult someone, you say, ‘May you live in interesting times.'† Grace suddenly did not know if the tears in her eyes were of sorrow or mirth. â€Å"That is enough, Miss Eversleigh,† the dowager said suddenly. â€Å"I am quite cooled.† Grace shut the fan, then decided to set it down on the table by the window so she would have a reason to cross the room. Dusk hung only lightly in the air, so it was not difficult to see down the drive. She was not certain why she was so eager to have the two men back – possibly just as proof that they had not killed each other on the trip. Despite defending Thomas's sense of honor, she had not liked the look in his eyes. And she had certainly never known him to attack someone. He'd looked positively feral when he lunged for Mr. Audley. If Mr. Audley had been less of a fighting man himself, she was quite certain Thomas would have done him permanent harm. â€Å"Do you think it will rain, Miss Eversleigh?† Grace turned. â€Å"No.† â€Å"The wind is picking up.† â€Å"Yes.† Grace waited until the dowager turned her attention to a trinket on the table next to her, and then she turned back to the window. Of course the moment she did, she heard – â€Å"I hope it rains.† She held still. And then she turned. â€Å"I beg your pardon?† â€Å"I hope it rains.† The dowager said it again, so very matter-of-fact, as if anyone would wish for precipitation while two gentlemen were out on horseback. â€Å"They will be drenched,† Grace pointed out. â€Å"They will be forced to take each other's measure. Which they will have to do sooner or later. Besides, my John never minded riding in the rain. In fact, he rather enjoyed it.† â€Å"That does not mean that Mr. – â€Å" â€Å"Cavendish,† the dowager inserted. Grace swallowed. It helped her catch her patience. â€Å"Whatever he wishes to be called, I don't think we may assume that he enjoys riding in the rain just because his father did. Most people do not.† The dowager did not seem to wish to consider this. But she acknowledged the statement with, â€Å"I know nothing of the mother, that is true. She could be responsible for any number of adulterations.† â€Å"Would you care for tea, ma'am?† Grace asked. â€Å"I could ring for it.† â€Å"What do we know of her, after all? Almost certainly Irish, which could mean any number of things, all of them dreadful.† â€Å"The wind is picking up,† Grace said. â€Å"I shouldn't want you to get chilled.† â€Å"Did he even tell us her name?† â€Å"I don't believe so.† Grace sighed, because direct questions made it difficult to pretend she wasn't a part of this conversation. â€Å"Dear Lord.† The dowager shuddered, and her eyes took on an expression of utter horror. â€Å"She could be Catholic.† â€Å"I have met several Catholics,† Grace said, now that it was clear that her attempts to divert the subject had failed. â€Å"It was strange,† she murmured. â€Å"None had horns.† â€Å"What did you say?† â€Å"Just that I know very little about the Catholic faith,† Grace said lightly. There was a reason she often directed her comments to a window or wall. The dowager made a noise that Grace could not quite identify. It sounded like a sigh, but it was probably more of a snort, because the next words from her mouth were: â€Å"We shall have to get that taken care of.† She leaned forward, pinching the bridge of her nose with her fingers and looking extremely put out. â€Å"I suppose I shall have to contact the archbishop.† â€Å"Is that a problem?† Grace asked. The dowager's head shook with distaste. â€Å"He is a beady little man who will be lording this over me for years.† Grace leaned forward. Was that movement she saw in the distance? â€Å"Heaven knows what sorts of favors he shall demand,† the dowager muttered. â€Å"I suppose I shall have to let him sleep in the State Bedroom, just so he can say he slept on Queen Elizabeth's sheets.† Grace watched as the two men on horseback came into view. â€Å"They are back,† she said, and not for the first time that evening, wondered just what role she was meant to play in this drama. She was not family; the dowager was certainly correct in that. And despite Grace's relatively lofty position within the household, she was not included in matters pertaining to family or title. She did not expect it, and indeed she did not want it. The dowager was at her worst when matters of dynasty arose, and Thomas was at his worst when he had to deal with the dowager. She should excuse herself. It did not matter that Mr. Audley had insisted upon her presence. Grace knew her position, and she knew her place, and it was not in the middle of a family affair. But every time she told herself it was time to go, that she ought to turn from the window and inform the dowager that she would leave her to talk with her grandsons in private, she could not make herself move. She kept hearing – no, feeling – Mr. Audley's voice. She stays. Did he need her? He might. He knew nothing of the Wyndhams, nothing of their history and the tensions that ran through the house like a vicious, intractable spiderweb. He could not be expected to navigate his new life on his own, at least not right away. Grace shivered, hugging her arms to her chest as she watched the men dismount in the drive. How strange it was to feel needed. Thomas liked to say he needed her, but they both knew that was untrue. He could hire anyone to put up with his grandmother. Thomas needed no one. Nothing. He was marvelously self-contained. Confident and proud, all he really needed was the occasional pinprick to burst the bubble that surrounded him. He knew this, too, which was what saved him from being entirely insufferable. He'd never said as much, but Grace knew it was why they had become friends. She was possibly the only person in Lincolnshire who did not bow and scrape and say only what she thought he wished to hear. But he didn't need her. Grace heard footsteps in the hall and turned, stiffening nervously. She waited for the dowager to order her gone. She even looked at her, raising her brows ever so slightly as if in a dare, but the dowager was staring at the door, determinedly ignoring her. When the men arrived, Thomas walked in first. â€Å"Wyndham,† the dowager said briskly. She never called him anything but his title. He nodded in response. â€Å"I had Mr. Audley's belongings sent up to the blue silk bedroom.† Grace shot a careful look over at the dowager to gauge her reaction. The blue silk bedroom was one of the nicer guest bedchambers, but it was not the largest or most prestigious. It was, however, just down the hall from the dowager. â€Å"Excellent choice,† the dowager replied. â€Å"But I must repeat. Do not refer to him as Mr. Audley in my presence. I don't know these Audleys, and I don't care to know them.† â€Å"I don't know that they would care to know you, either,† commented Mr. Audley, who had entered the room behind Thomas. The dowager lifted a brow, as if to point out her own magnificence. â€Å"Mary Audley is my late mother's sister,† Mr. Audley stated. â€Å"She and her husband, William Audley, took me in at my birth. They raised me as their own and, at my request, gave me their name. I don't care to relinquish it.† He looked coolly at the dowager, as if daring her to comment. She did not, much to Grace's surprise. And then he turned to her, offering her an elegant bow. â€Å"You may refer to me as Mr. Audley if you wish, Miss Eversleigh.† Grace bobbed a curtsy. She was not certain if this was a requirement, since no one had any clue as to his rank, but it seemed only polite. He had bowed, after all. She glanced at the dowager, who was glaring at her, and then at Thomas, who somehow managed to look amused and annoyed at the same time. â€Å"She can't sack you for using his legal name,† Thomas said with his usual hint of impatience. â€Å"And if she does, I shall retire you with a lifelong bequest and have her sent off to some far-flung property.† Mr. Audley looked at Thomas with surprise and approval before turning to Grace and smiling. â€Å"It's tempting,† he murmured. â€Å"How far can she be flung?† â€Å"I am considering adding to our holdings,† Thomas replied. â€Å"The Outer Hebrides are lovely this time of year.† â€Å"You're despicable,† the dowager hissed. â€Å"Why do I keep her on?† Thomas wondered aloud. He walked over to a cabinet and poured himself a drink. â€Å"She is your grandmother,† Grace said, since someone had to be the voice of reason. â€Å"Ah yes, blood.† Thomas sighed. â€Å"I'm told it's thicker than water. Pity.† He looked over at Mr. Audley. â€Å"You'll soon learn.† Grace half expected Mr. Audley to bristle at Thomas's tone of condescension, but his face remained blandly unconcerned. Curious. It seemed the two men had forged some sort of truce. â€Å"And now,† Thomas announced, looking squarely at his grandmother, â€Å"my work here is done. I have returned the prodigal son to your loving bosom, and all is right with the world. Not my world,† he added, â€Å"but someone's world, I'm sure.† â€Å"Not mine,† Mr. Audley said, when no one else seemed inclined to comment. And then he unleashed a smile – slow, lazy, and meant to paint himself as the careless rogue he was. â€Å"In case you were interested.† Thomas looked at him, his nose crinkling in an expression of vague indifference. â€Å"I wasn't.† Grace's head bobbed back to Mr. Audley. He was still smiling. She looked to Thomas, waiting for him to say something more. He dipped his head toward her in wry salute, then tossed back his liquor in one shockingly large swallow. â€Å"I am going out.† â€Å"Where?† demanded the dowager. Thomas paused in the doorway. â€Å"I have not yet decided.† Which meant, Grace was sure, anywhere but here.

Employment and Law of Tort Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Employment and Law of Tort - Essay Example The law provides for anyone who has been wrong to seek redress on the grounds that have resulted into the loss (Klar, 99). Those individuals who have suffered losses due to tortuous injury are entitled to monetary compensation. In this case, the extent of legal injuries is not limited to those of physical but to the extent, that it covers the emotional, reputational, and economic. Of all the liabilities related to tort, negligence takes the lead (Cane, 67). Negligence is when one is fails to observe the duty of care at work place resulting into one of the injuries mentioned above. In such a situation when one knows or is expected to know what should be done and deliberately or not fails to do as expected thus resulting into a loss, he/she is held liable for the losses (Larouche, Pierre, Jeremy , and Walter, 132). Tort is thus categorized into many ways as Quasi-torts, the intentional tort, and the negligence tort (Cooke, 112). This category implies that in any event of tort, the liab ility will be classified into any of the sub categories of tort. In this case, study, the different cases in the Mavis enterprise is are considered and appropriate legal decision is given to him so that he can seek redress where applicable. The following are legal position of the cases in relation to tort. Case 1 It is important for Mavis to understand the stipulations of the contract between her and the employer. This will enable her to determine whether the employee’s action warrants termination of the job or not. It is also important to classify the type of tort involved and to determine whether it has resulted into any financial loss or not (Geistfeld, 78). Following the situation given in the case, Nell has only been sleeping in the store during low season in which the customers are known to be reasonably scarce (Deakin, and Angus, 88). Though the customers may be scarce during sometimes in the year, it does not imply that the employees should deviate from the normal dut ies of the work place. The decision to terminate Nell’s engagement in the cafe verbally is not legally recognized. Nell’s conduct can be classified as Negligence in consideration of tort law. Within the negligence, it is further classified as dereliction and breach of duty. Once Nell accepted to sign a contract with her employer, Mavis, she ought to have observed the duty of care to ensure that all the duties are done immediately and that no one goes without service. This position does not consider the extent of customer availability (Edwards, Linda, Stanley, and Patricia, 154). Even in the law season, one cannot tell when customers can come and when they are not. It was therefore the responsibility of Nell to keep vigil all the time as a manifestation of the duty of care. Mavis should explore filling a suit under the tort law regarding negligence and Nell would be made to pay in monetary the amount Mavis would have lost due to her negligence. Case 2 The Case of Olga a nd peter is also considered under the tort law, Olga had prior knowledge that the pulling the chair intentionally can/will cause injury to peter and went ahead to pull it. This is considered under intentional torts (Elliott, Catherine, and Frances, 201). Mavis the employer should thus consider filing a suit against Olga to foot the bills for that will be accrued during the treatment of Peter and any other inconveniences rendered. Without Olga’s action of pulling he chair, Peter would have not sustained a waist injury. Olga should thus be made to make the payment for any cost in terms of medication and hospitalization of Peter since all the problems emanates from her. Since Olga’s conduct is considered tortuous, the best legal action to be taken in this regard is filing

The Customer-Service Agent Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Customer-Service Agent - Essay Example Bill Ryan who acts as a customer-service representative or agent in an online marketplace that is owned by the renowned eBay Inc., an internet auction company, it can be stated that the day diary does not include sufficient information. The day diary only depicted limited job responsibilities of a customer-service agent i.e. Mr. Ryan within the online marketplace settings. Moreover, the day diary did not provide a detailed understanding about the core functions as well as the essential qualifications of a customer-service agent. According to the article which deals with Mr. Ryan, the information of the work as well as the activities which he performed acting as a customer-service agent in an online marketplace is quite useful. This article would largely support the different customer-service agents working in dissimilar organizations to get an inclusive along with a systematic job description particularly of a customer-service agent. In relation to the usefulness of the information which is mentioned in the article, it can be stated that the article broadly emphasized upon valuing the demands of the customers by a considerable extent. Moreover, the article also revealed the information that it is quite necessary to settle the arising disputes of the customers for the motive of accomplishing significant returns. In addition, the article also affirmed the valuable information that a customer-service agent should remain calm and composed when the buyers or the customers are upset due to their any kind of dissa tisfaction relating with the products. There lies the requirement of certain extra information as the day diary does not encompass sufficient information about the detailed functions or responsibilities of a customer-service agent. Moreover, the day diary does not describe the qualifications of a customer-service agent in order to execute their various assigned job tasks. In this regard, the other core

Propaganda Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Propaganda - Research Paper Example According to Magstadt (147), Propaganda is the deliberate and a systematic effort to manipulate the perceptions, cognitions and or behavior using false, true or partial information in order for the informer to achieve certain specific responses that serves his or her intention. Propaganda may therefore passing information mainly to direct perception towards a certain point for the benefit of the propagandist. It therefore follows that propaganda may not benefit the audience but benefit only the architecture of the propaganda. Propaganda may also be intentional deception of individuals by changing their perceptions towards a particular issue. It can be engineered by the government or politicians for political reasons or just by an individual for self benefit. However, victims of propaganda do not often realize until they are completely deceived. Most of the times, propaganda is used to garner political support for politicians and they do this by spreading propaganda against their riva ls. However, it is important to clarify that propaganda is not only for political reasons but may be also witnessed by other societal organizations that have intensions of manipulating the perceptions of the people. The understanding of propaganda in a class setting has therefore to start with the differentiation of propaganda with the other forms of advocacy. There are other forms of advocacy that are used to persuade people and hence change their perception by not necessarily using lies and false information. From the explanation given above, it is clear that there is a difference between propaganda and other tools of persuasion. One idea that has come out is that with propaganda, is that the propagandists are willing and uses confusion and deception to change the people’s perception rather than ordinary persuasion and understanding (Magstadt, 148). Another difference is that they may take the opportunity that the audience do not have the full information and hence use part ial truth and partial lies to confuse them and make them believe. For example, in an organization, the leaders of that particular organization know very well that the information may not be true, however for the individuals in the organization that helps in the dissemination of the information; they might not know this. Bringing this difference in class aids in the understanding of propaganda as it it makes the members in a classroom stay focused and avoids confusion with other methods of advocacy. It also brings the concept clearer for the members in the classroom. It is therefore clear that propaganda is deliberate, deception and confusion that is intended to benefit individual interest or group of individuals. The techniques that are used to share propaganda are also very important. Since it is not a direct deception, it is important to outline the various techniques that are used by the propagandist to share information. The two commonly used avenues for sharing propaganda are t he advertisements through media and public relations. However the difference should come out clear between the advertisement that are meant to promote a commercial product and the advertisement that is only meant to share propaganda. It should be noted that the propaganda often takes a specific forma and is totally different from the commercial advertisements in the media. Propaganda often takes the political or nationalist kind of messages and hence should not be

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Discovering Statistics Using SPSS - Assignment Example The data for this report was collected using a standardized questionnaire. The questionnaire contained three sets of questions. The first set comprised 21 separate questions concerning five dimensions of service quality. Sub-questions 1 through 6 focused on tangible elements of the service. Sub Questions 20 and 21 measured the empathy dimension, whilst 16 through 19 measured the assurance dimension. Questions 7, 10,11,12 focused on reliability with 8, 9, 13,14,15 measuring responsiveness. These questions followed a similar format to previous research in this field, such that measurement validity was maintained; a 5 point scale was used to allow respondents to rate the service performance. The second set of questions attempted to get the respondents to weight the importance they attached to each of the five dimensions of service quality. The third set of questions were ‘key independent variables’ which measured respondent characteristics. These allowed us to ascertain the demographics of the sample and facilitate analysis of variance later. The questionnaire was pre†tested for face validity with potential users of the sports center. There were no problems with face validity and the questionnaire was deemed to be reliable. The sampling method took the form of a probability sample of students at the University in question. The sampling frame was composed of the email addresses of all students. Using simple random sampling a sample size of 200 was deemed appropriate † with the potential sampling error of 9%. The research used a structured questionnaire which is characterized by a diverse scales; the questionnaire was divided into three categories. The first questionnaire was determined to assess the service quality of the sports center; the results obtained on a five-point Linkert scale. The second part of the questionnaire attempted to evaluate the most important sports’ services and facilities according to the views of the students; the importance was measured on a scale of one-hundred percent.

Business D1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business D1 - Essay Example Nevertheless, application of interpersonal skills is depends on communication, which is either formal or informal. Effectiveness of interpersonal skills is manifested through development of substantial communication capabilities. For instance, people are able to communicate freely, though without the knowledge of the messages that they are disseminating (Tracom Group, 2013). For instance, effective communication skills entail aspects such as maintenance of eye contact, control of physical twitches such as fidgeting and concentration, while listening during a conversation. In this case, an active listener is able to ask clarifying questions, which is an illustration of their effective interpersonal skills in terms of listening. Therefore, through this way they can ensure that the message is understood as it is being conveyed. Ineffective interpersonal skills can cause serious problems during a serious conversation, thereby leading to misunderstanding; in fact, this can also lead to conflicts (Tracom Group, 2013). For instance, in a situation where a business associate does not maintain eye contact during a conversation, this is an indication that they are not interested with the message conveyed; hence, this becomes

Pfizer's unsuccessful takeover of AstraZeneca Case Study

Pfizer's unsuccessful takeover of AstraZeneca - Case Study Example In this regard, it is necessary to have a brief knowledge about AstraZeneca. The company is a United Kingdom (UK) based pharmaceutical company headquartered in London. AstraZeneca is also recognised among top companies in the global pharmaceutical industry. Like Pfizer, this company also have significant experience in acquisition and mergers as it has acquired and collaborated with a number of companies in recent years. The case in this paper focuses on the failed merger between Pfizer and AstraZeneca which took place in May, 2014. It was gathered from the Guardian (2014a) that the chairman of Pfizer initially approached chairman of AstraZeneca regarding merger in November 2013 while the detailed discussion took place in January, 2014. The exploratory meeting between both the companies took place in New York on January 5, 2014. It was gathered that Pfizer offered a settlement payment of  £58 billion or  £46.61 per share in its preliminary proposal to AstraZeneca. The offer also included establishment of a new holding company listed and headquartered in the US. However, AstraZeneca’s board turned down the offer concluding that Pfizer has heavily undervalued the company and its prospects. The company also questioned transaction structure and offered inversion structure of Pfizer and ultimately the proposal ended by the mid of January 2014 (International Business Times, 2014; The Telegraph, 2014; The Guardian, 2014a; 2014b). On 26 April 2014, Pfizer contacted chairman of AstraZeneca for a new discussion regarding collaboration of both the companies but AstraZeneca declined this offer. Consequently, Pfizer publicised its interest in merger with AstraZeneca on 28 April 2014. The US pharmaceutical giant revealed that they are planning to offer AstraZeneca cash and share at an attractive premium. They further added that they would move company domicile

Compose own question Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Compose own question - Literature review Example In general, this study presumes that the potential success of Shangri-la hotel was very much dependent on the company’s ability to meet the needs and wants of prospective clients. Therefore, this study aims to address the following research questions: (1) What are the branding strategies currently being used by Shangri-la hotel?; (2) How does Shangri-la hotel benefit from its branding strategies?; and (3) What is the significance of brand positioning and branding within the modern international tourism industry? Chapter II – Literature Review 2.1 Current Branding Strategies of Shangri-la Hotel First of all, it is essential to take note that the target customers of Shangri-la are the influential people who are able to pay first-rate price for its food and lodging services. Meaning, this particular hotel company has positioned its brand as one that offers luxury hotel products and services (Shangri-La, 2013a). This explains why Shangri-la continuously serve the best quali ty products and maintains its stylish, modern, and motivational architectural and interior design (Shangri-La, 2013c). As a result, Shangri-la created a competitive advantage which allows them to charge its customers with hotel accommodation fee much higher than the fee of other hotels worldwide (Schmitt and Rogers, 2008, p. 79). Generally, multinational companies such as Shangri-la uses a global advertising strategy as part of their global campaigns (Jiang and Wei, 2012). To establish and reinforce Shangri-la’s brand image, the top management of this particular hotel group uses either social networking sites or e-mail when advertising and promoting their special offers on bridal packages among others (Facebook, 2013). In some cases, Shangri-la has posted its special offers on bridal magazines (Shangri-La, 2013d). Customers’ satisfaction is strongly influenced by its brand image. In most cases, customers who are satisfied with what they receive from the hotel may end u p developing a stronger brand recognition and eventually remain loyal to the brand (Clottey, Collier and Stodnick, 2008). To bring high quality service, Shangri-la offers important training and development programme for the benefit of its employees (Shangri-La, 2013e). Not all people can afford the high price of Shangri-la’s accommodation rate. Associated to the brand of Shangri-la, this particular hotel company created a separate brand and eventually positioned it as a hotel that offers cheaper and more affordable rate for its hotel service (Kerry Hotels, 2013). For example, â€Å"Traders Hotel† was established to serve the lodging needs of the price-sensitive clients worldwide (Traders Hotels, 2013). To serve the Chinese community in Beijing, Shangri-la established the â€Å"Kerry Hotel† sometime in 2011 (Kerry Hotels, 2013). 2.2 Advantages of Shangri-La’s Existing Branding Strategies Advertising is necessary to create brand familiarity or make Shangri- la’s target customers feel special and associated with the brand (Fuchs, 2008). Often times, brand familiarity increases not only the customers’

Art History and Appreciation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Art History and Appreciation - Essay Example The whims and fancies of the mysterious race of women fighters have been well depicted through the painting "The Battle of Amazons". Excellent use of color combination and images can capture the mind of an onlooker. The submissiveness and resistance of the women folk reveal more clearly and artistically in the given painting. The journal article entitled: "Comparison of The Heart of the Andes, The Volga Boatmen and the Battle of the Amazons Paintings" by Steven Nickerson shares his view about the painting. The author remarks; "Amazons were a mysterious race of women - warriors who hated men and kept them as slaves for hard works." Content HomeArts & Entertainment (Nickerson, Steven, 2008). Fredrick Edwin Church's "The Heart of the Andes" depicts an excellent combination of dark colors which express a dark and sorrowful mood. The beautiful picture of the landscape constitutes effective examples of symbolism. The flowing river, falling trees, and the mourning people are symbolizing the inevitable struggle between life and death. The online article entitled: "The Heart of the Andes" states: "The picture caused such a sensation that people waited for hours in line to approach it on the last day of the exhibit" (Church, E. Frederic., n. d.). Like, "The Battle of Amazons" it also explores several inner meanings.

Arguments on Utilitarianism Essay Example for Free

Arguments on Utilitarianism Essay Which is more valuable: a game of push-pin or the study of Latin? Which has greater worth: the life of a single young girl or the lives of an entire community? These are the sorts of questions raised when dealing with the matter of utilitarianism. According to Jeremy Bentham, the father of the theory, the ultimate moral goal of human beings should be to increase pleasure and to decrease pain. To maximize the amount of time spent in content, and minimize the times of depression. And he has a point. Simply stated like that, everyone can agree that that is definitely something they want to achieve. But when his theory is applied to real-life conditions, the varying answers and resulting situations arent always applicable with such a cut-and-dry cure-all. Contrary to Benthams theory, just because doing something may seem to create an overall better situation than not doing something, it doesnt necessarily mean that it should be done. When he states his place, Bentham seems to have taken into account all of the variables. He affirms that the standards of right and wrong, and the chains of cause and effect, will influence what exactly promotes pleasure and prevents pain (306). He also recognizes that the quantity of people being affected is a contributing factor as to whether something is ultimately beneficial or detrimental (311). Drawing upon these recognized facts, Bentham goes so far as to create a virtual mathematical equation for determining utility; Including intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, and purity as factors of what qualifies as happiness, and thereby, righteousness (311). But this in itself is absurd, as it is impossible to gauge the properties he proposes. He does not, and can not, provide a scale with which to measure how certain, how intense, or how pure the goodness level of something is. Nor is he able to quantify the overall amount of utility one law or reason offers to an entire population under government; which is what he suggests at the end of his theory (312). It can be conceded that the utility of a rule should be considered during its establishment, as in general rules should be for the greater good and therefore the greater happiness. But there are other factors that come into play that Bentham neglects to recognize. In Ivans Challenge, Fyodor Dostoevsky suggests a striking situation in which utility is obviously not the lone factor in determining its morality (333). He conjures up a circumstance where a small, young girl is to be sacrificed for the edifice of human destiny, the ultimate aim of which is to bring people happiness, to give them peace and contentment at last? (333). With her death, the salvation of the entire community is achieved. At first glance, and in Benthams eyes, its a simple equation. One is lesser than infinity. Her death would be justified because the lives of so many others would be saved. But, he fails to consider human emotion. Living with the fact that a young child had to have died in order for themselves to live may not necessarily be a life of cheerfulness. Furthermore, by calling this a justified situation, Bentham is putting a price on human life. This action in itself is immoral. Also, its an example of a situation where its not really a matter of increasing happiness. Putting a value on a human life is an action in which no party is gaining or losing contentment directly. It doesnt fit into Benthams equation, and apart from it, is an immoral action that should not ethically be able to exist passively beside his main theory of morals by utility. In addition to this flaw, Bentham fails to acknowledge the notion that all pleasures are not created equal. In his first writing, The Principle of Utility, he only manages to recognize the aspect of quantity, and it is in a second, Push-Pin and Poetry, that he proceeds to debunk the possibility of varying qualities of pleasure. To Bentham, there are different kinds of pleasure, but one is not greater or better than another. He breaks them down into two different categories: 1, arts and sciences of amusement and curiosity, and 2, arts and sciences of simple and immediate utility (200). Those of amusement he associates with the fine arts, such as poetry, painting, or architecture, and are generally appreciated aesthetically (200). Those of curiosity he associates with sciences and history, such as the study of foreign languages or biology (200). Those of simple utility are more basic, such as a game of push-pin (200). They are ordinary things that can be enjoyed by anyone. He goes on to say that, prejudice apart, the game of push-pin is of equal value with the fine arts and sciences of music and poetry (200). His only concession is that if music and science are placed above a game of push-pin in utility, it is only because those individuals are more difficult to please (200). Nowhere does he acknowledge that those difficult individuals are correct or justified in wanting a more stimulating source of excitement. Nowhere does he consent that the thrill of curing a disease through the study of medicine overpowers the brief amusement of a board game. But, John Stuart Mill, a supporter of the philosophy of utilitarianism, does. He begins by citing a major criticism of utility, which is that many people feel that the idea of life having no higher end besides pleasure? no better and nobler object of desire and pursuit is degrading and dishonorable (201). His rebuke is that it is only degrading if the accusation supposes human beings to be capable of no pleasures except those of which swine are capable (201). This is obviously not the case. We would not be content simply rolling in mud and gorging ourselves on tangerine rinds. Humans require more stimulation and excitement in order to achieve happiness than an animal, such as swine, with lesser faculties. It is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied (Mill 203). To be able to fully appreciate and understand the higher pleasures, such as love and friendship, is so much more rewarding than the simple contentments of physical gratification. Despite the truth that a fool or a swine may lead a more content life, it is only because they require less to achieve contentment. This supplements Benthams statement of a person who prefers poetry to push-pin being more difficult to please. Bentham just fails to see that human beings in their usual healthy, intelligent forms are all difficult to please. All in all, the philosophy of utilitarianism is an acceptable standard of morality? on most occasions. There will always be situations where what is truly moral does not fully satisfy the idea of existence exempt from pain and rich in enjoyments. And, contrary to Bentham, there are pleasures that are of higher quality than others, just as there are pains more severe than others. Works Cited Bentham, Jeremy. Push-Pin and Poetry. Ethics. Ed. Peter Singer. Oxford University Press: New York, 1994. 199-200. Bentham, Jeremy. The Principle of Utility. Ethics. Ed. Peter Singer. Oxford University Press: New York, 1994. 306-312. Mill, John Stuart. Higher and Lower Pleasures. Ethics. Ed. Peter Singer. Oxford University Press: New York, 1994. 201-205. Dostoevsky, Fyodor. Ivans Challenge. Ethics. Ed. Peter Singer. Oxford University Press: New York, 1994. 332.

Key conventions comprising works of writer and director christopher nolan

Key conventions comprising works of writer and director christopher nolan Chapter 1 Introduction I think audiences get too comfortable and familiar in todays movies. They believe everything theyre hearing and seeing. I like to shake that up. (The Auteurs, 2010) Christopher Nolan made his feature debut with Following in 1998 but it was the cult classic Memento, released in the autumn of 2000, which lead to his breakthrough in Hollywood. Despite only a handful of subsequent box office successes later, Nolan had soon established himself as both a blockbuster writer and director of the highest calibre. With Nolan rapidly constructing a key signature of his work that chronology would take a back seat to character with an identifiable undertone of film noir, is Christopher Nolan an auteur of the 21st century or merely a product from the likes of David Lynch and David Fincher? Consequently, this assignment will aim to answer this very question and will make a judgement on whether Christopher Nolan is in fact an auteur. In order to make a final judgement the dissertation will pursue the following procedure: Chapter three will aim to define what characteristics constitute an auteur, and will thus provide an informative analysis of the cinematic theory so that a context for the discussion can be established. This dissertation will benefit largely from the combination of both Alexandre Austrucs relatively elementary definition of auteurism as well as Andrew Sarris and John Caughies more modern, in-depth interpretation of the film theory. Employing approximately 50 years worth of academic analysis in regards to auteurism, a precise and thorough definition of an auteur will be produced, essential when drawing an accurate conclusion. Similarly, Chapter four will provide a brief summary of both the history of film noir and the neo-noir motion picture, informing the reader through an analysis and development of the genres codes and conventions. Joan Copjecs publication explores the origins of this classic period of Hollywood cinema and offers a perspective upon the films themselves, viewed in light of contemporary social and political concerns, and from new theoretical insights. She also analyses the re-emergence of noir cinema in recent years and how neo-noir remains a popular choice for the big film studios. Another publication which has been hugely beneficial during my research is that of Dr Frank Krutnik. Krutniks book combines both theoretical and historical research through the examination of individual films through a generic framework. In a lonely street is an extremely valuable text as it is especially successful in combining both historical research and textual analysis. It is important to note that Chapt er three and four of this dissertation are effectively the foundations before producing a smooth transition into the rise and success of writer and director Christopher Nolan. The vast bulk of the evidence gathered will be contained between Chapters five, six and seven. Chapter five will observe a number of Nolans cinematic trademarks, beginning with non-linear narratives. The International Society for the Study of Narrative states that narrative is the telling of a story or communication of a chain of events, fictive or real. Aspects of narrative include how the story is told, the context in which it is presented, and the construction of the story (Narrative, 2010). Therefore, in order to achieve an in-depth deconstruction of the non-linear narratives of Nolans first two motion pictures, Following and Memento, the aid of a narratological theory will be required whilst an analysis of all aspects of narrative must also be attributed. One narrative theory which has been specifically chosen is that of Tzvetan Todorov. Lacey (2000) argues that one name has become synonymous with that of Narratology over the years, Todorov, who simplified the concept of narrative while allowing a more complex interpretation of film texts with his theory of Equilibrium an d Disequilibrium. First proposed by Russian Formalists, there should be two individual narratological traditions: thematic and modal. According to research by Professor Meir Steinberg (Narrative, 2010) the former is largely limited to a semiotic formalization of the sequences of action told, while the latter examines the manner of their telling, stressing the importance of voice, point of view, transformation of the chronological order, rhythm and frequency. Numerous academics however, have insisted that thematic and modal Narratology should not be investigated separately as they both undoubtedly benefit one another especially when investigating the function and interest of narrative sequence and plot. Therefore, one must ensure that both a modal and thematic stance has been incorporated into the investigation of each text. The study will then progress on to observe the role of the morally dubious protagonist, a feature which dominates the majority of Nolans texts. For this purpose, Memento, The Prestige and Batman Begins have all been chosen for evaluation. This chapter will also undertake a vigorous breakdown of recognisable mise en scene traits and themes which will be identified throughout the volume of Christopher Nolans films. It will be this section of the study that will ensure a balanced debate as we look at the impact of other members within the production process such as Wally Pfister, a cinematographer, who Nolan has hired for all but one of his feature films. We also consider the influence of Chris brother, Jonathan, who has helped co-write several texts. The introduction to the conclusion, if you will, will help summarise and determine the significant influence the noir conventions that have been stated throughout this discussion have had on the development and originality of certain Nolan films. The dissertation will then conclude that despite the fact that Christopher Nolan, like many of his predecessors, has inherited a vast wealth of cinematic codes and conventions, his body of work, all be it relatively small, provides a unique stamp thus establishing Nolan as an auteur alongside the likes of Scorsese and Spielberg. Methodology. (3 pages) The following Firstly the information collected for this dissertation will be purely qualitative rather than quantitative as it focuses upon film theory through the form of textual analysis. The Secondary research will specifically involve the consultation of academic textbooks on the dissertation topic. This will be essential in developing prior knowledge on the subject and will allow discussion in order to reach the overall aim. The opinions of film academics and authors will be utilised in order to validate or oppose various issues raised within the dissertation. By using published or peer reviewed sources it increases the reliability of the information referenced and in turn the dissertation. The dissertation will also consist of narrative analysis of moving image. Stokes states that narrative analysis involves very close reading and is best conducted on a limited number of texts (2003, p. 69) which is why the dissertation particularly examines and deconstructs the works of a sole director and writer. However, there may also be a negative effect of investigating the work of one artist as Stoke (2003) claims there can become a danger of bias by steering away from a critical approach if you admire the work of the particular auteur. She states that one must go through a process of developing a critical distance and a way of watching which is detached and dispassionate. Therefore in order to ensure that the investigations results are as reliable as can be, one must aspire to analyse with complete objectivity. Whether or not this is entirely possible is another matter. Stokes (2003) also offers seven steps in order to conduct narrative analysis effectively. These guidelines will be extremely useful when deconstructing the narratives of Following, Memento and Batman Begins. Chapter 3 The Auteur Theory. More than a theory. In 1954 film critic and film director FranÃÆ'ois Truffaut coined the term auteurism, a concept which would later provoke much controversy and debate within the world of cinema. The politique des auteurs, later referred to as the auteur theory, originated in 1950s France as an abstract aesthetic rooted in the works of prestigious film journal cahiers du cinema. The fundamental works of this cinematic movement were Alexandre Austrucs Un camera stylo and Francois Truffauts Une certain tendance du cinema FranÃÆ'ais. Both of these concepts promoted the idea that as the author of a motion picture, the truly great directors must have a distinct visual style and identifiable themes which ingrain all of their work. (REFERENCE) Alexandre Astruc in his celebrated essay The Birth of the new avant-garde: the camera-stylo, announced that: The cinema is quite simply becoming a means of expression, just as all the other arts have been before it . . . After having been successively a fairground attraction, an amusement analogous to boulevard theatre, or the means of preserving the images of an era, it is gradually becoming a language. By language, I mean a form in which and by which an artist can express his thoughts, however abstract they may be, or translate his obsessions exactly as he does in the contemporary essay or novel (cited by Corrigan and River, 1999, p.159). Caughie (1988) states that as a term, Austrucs camera-stylo (camera pen) failed to take root, however the insistence on film as an individual self-expression, had a considerable polemical importance, forming the basis of Franca Truffauts cinema dauteurs. Traditionally, the reference to the auteur in French film criticism was associated with either the author who wrote the script, or, in the more general sense of the term, the artist who created the text. Before too long the latter sense came to replace the former and the title auteur was attributed to the artist whose personality had been written in the film. Inspired by the critics of cahiers du cinema, US film academic Andrew Sarris demanded a more detailed definition of the term la politique des auteurs and would later transform the notion of an auteur into an acclaimed cinematic theory. The auteur theory was never, in itself, a theory of the cinema, though its originators did not claim that it was. The writers of Cashiers du Cinema always spoke of la politique des auteurs. The translation of this into the auteur theory appears to be the responsibility of Andrew Sarris (Caughie, 1988, p.24). In his Notes on the Auteur Theory in 1962, Sarris proposed three key traits in order to identify an auteur; the first being the technical competence of a director as a criterion of value. The second; the distinguishable personality of the director. Over a group of films, a director must exhibit certain recurring characteristics of style, which serve as his signature. The third premise refers to a more mystic interior meaning: Interior meaning is extrapolated from the tension between a directors personality and his material. This conception of interior meaning comes close to what Astruc defines as mise-en- scene, but not quite. It is not quite the vision of the world a director projects nor quite his attitude to life. It is ambiguous, in any literary sense, because part of it is imbedded in the stuff of cinema and cannot be rendered in non-cinematic terms. (Cited by Pearson, 1997) It is fairly evident when scrutinising the words of Andrew Sarris, that there are in fact numerous weaknesses in regards to his academic approach towards the auteur theory. The first two traits are fairly self explanatory, as he claims that a director mustnt simply be a master of his craft but that he must also present a style which is clearly distinguishable as his own. The weakness in Sarris approach however, lies in his third and final point, as he produces a vague description of what he defines as interior meaning. This definition is simply too unclear making it near impossible for other film academics to evaluate and measure an auteurs interior meaning. This point is indisputable as Sarris himself claims that his third principle is in fact ambiguous (Cited by Pearson, 1997) to say the least. Once Andrew Sarris had developed the notion of the auteur theory, he began to break the boundaries set when analysing auteurism in cinema. He took note of films within Hollywood and the commercial system where a large number of directors whose work, displayed a consistency of under-lying themes and a style which Caughie believes was unusual as it was difficult for a director to express personality and uniqueness within the industries constraints: In fact, the struggle between the desire for self-expression and the constraints of the industry could produce a tension in the films of the commercial cinema which was lacking in the art cinema, encouraging the auteurist critics to valorise Hollywood cinema above all else, finding there a treasure-trove of buried personalities, and, in the process, scandalizing established criticism. Uniqueness of personality, brash individuality, persistence of obsession and originality were given an evaluative power above that of stylistic smoothness or social seriousness (Caughie, 1988, p.10). Despite the director as author approach becoming increasingly popular in the 1960s, its weaknesses soon became apparent as it wasnt long until the notion of auteurism had been extended to include both producers and actors. The auteur theory had now developed to the extent where it would only accept rigorous analysis of films as oppose to unclear references to themes and style; With its emphasis on the importance of systematically analysing a body of texts, auteur-structuralism conceives of the author as a set of structures identifiable within a directors films. (Crofts, 1998, p. 315) Film critics would therefore now attempt to deconstruct the common themes and style of a given director rather than simply producing a vague interpretation. Caughie (1988) states that a weakness of the auteur theory lays in the fact that it requires a means in which to measure value. Sarris suggests films become valuable in so far as they reveal directorial personality. He therefore does precisely what s hould not be done: he uses individuality as a test for cultural value (Caughie, 1988, p.27). After utilising a number of interpretations in regards to the auteur theory, a single definition must be produced in order to validate the conclusion drawn at the end of this investigation. The definition which has been selected is that of John Caughies as it is both simplistic yet precise. Caughie, is his text Theories of Authorship, stipulates that an auteur is purely a valued member of the production team whose personality can be traced in a thematic and/or stylistic consistency over all (or almost all) of his/her films (Caughie, 1988). It is therefore fair to suggest that a personality, arguably a synonym for auteur, simply refers to a number of unique codes and conventions which have been persistently drawn upon for a large percentage of his or her (in this instance, a directors) work. Chapter 4 A History of Film Noir and its progression into the Neo Noir motion picture. More than a genre Paris, summer 1946. This moment marks an incredibly important event in cinema history, not for production but for exhibition. For this was the summer when, after the hiatus of the Second World War, French critics were again given the opportunity to view films from Hollywood. The films they saw prompted the naming and theorisation of a new phenomenon: film noir (Copjec, 1993). Silver (2004) simply defines classic film noir as one of the most influential movements in cinema history. This definition seems rather basic, however, despite five decades of attempted classification and debate its categorisation still remains problematic as it is marked by what Krutnik (1991) coined as a division between opposing camps of theorists and historians. Perhaps it is easier to suggest what characteristics constitute film noir rather than attempting to identify it wholly as genre or a period of history. Silver and Ursini (1998) in their book Film Noir Reader claim that the boundaries of this classic period stretch from John Hustons The Maltese Falcon (1941) to Orson Welles Touch of Evil (1958) and emerged from crime fiction in the United States during the Depression. The iconic visual style of film noir set in the 40s usually tends to be low key lighting with use of dark, dramatic shadowy patterns. This style is particularly noticeable in Carol Reeds The Third Man. In an analysis of the visual approach of Kiss Me Deadly, critic Alain Silver (1995, p.222) describes how cinematographic choices emphasize the storys themes and mood. In one scene, the characters, seen through a confusion of angular shapes, thus appear caught in a tangible vortex or enclosed in a trap. Copjec claims that this new form of cinema that emerged in 1940s America reflected the anxieties of a country entering a new era, an era perhaps dark and ominous. Film noir had therefore become the antithesis of Hollywoods glamour productions of the 30s. Literally meaning black film, film noir was first introduced by the French critic Nino Frank in 1946 as he noticed how dark and often black the settings and themes of these Hollywood films were (Wolfgang, 2003). Unlike other forms of cinema, film noir has no elements that it can truly indentify as its own. Rather, film noir makes use of elements from other forms, most notably from the crime and detective genres, but often overlapping into thrillers, horror, and even science fiction (Copjec, 1993). The primary moods of classic film noir are melancholy, alienation, bleakness, disillusionment, disenchantment, pessimism, ambiguity, moral corruption, evil, guilt and paranoia (Wolfgang, 2003). Whereas much work has been published on classic film noirs, produced between 1940 and 1958, little criticism has been written about the newer films, produced between 1966 and 2010, defined as the neo-noir motion picture. For some there has been a tendency amongst film critics to exclusively use the term noir for the classic films of the 30s, 40s and 50s. Although in recent years, there has been an increasing flexibility in regards to the classification of noir, especially as far as a chronological broadening is concerned. Some film academics believe that the genre has expanded from pre-World War Two cinema to the modern day phenomenon of the Neo-noir motion picture. This therefore suggests that the label film noir now has over sixty years of film history behind it. The term Neo-Noir was first coined by Todd Erickson in the 1990s in his widely credited essay Kill Me Again: Movement becomes a Genre where he claimed that neo noir only became a genre in the 80s, when it emerged from its embryonic state in the sixties and seventies (Silver and Ursini, 1998). He also discusses the emergence of noir motifs in films subsequent to the canonical period and suggests studying them as a new genre. Contemporary film noir is a new genre of film. As such, it must carry the distinction of another name; a name that is cognizant of its rich noir heritage, yet one that distinguishes its influences and motivations from those of the bygone era (Silver and Ursini, 1998, p.321) Erickson expanded on his definition stating that Neo Noir encompasses films released after the classic period which fulfil central aspects of the genre but take other different generic approaches (Lee Horsley, Crime and Culture). These central aspects of iconography, to which Erickson refers, a re: The visual style, in terms of cinematography with the use of symbolic lighting on certain characters to portray a particular characteristic. Academic David Watt (2002) highlights these codes and conventions within a framework of David Finchers Fight Club. Watt argues that Fincher has accomplished a particular style of lighting through the relationship between the central characters. In various scenes, Jack is in the foreground of the shot lit in high key with Tyler in the background hidden by shadows, thus representing that Tyler is hiding something from Jack (Watt, 2002). Another piece of iconography within the narrative structure is the common use of flashbacks in film noir where the protagonist will narrate their own story. Watt states that Fight Club fulfils this narrative device and plays on it through creating a flashback from another flashback, setting the film further back and expanding on the convention (Watt, 2002). The third and final key element of film noir is the i nclusion of certain Character types who the audience recognise as a recurrent motif of the genre. For example, perhaps the most identifiable character type in film noir is that of the anti hero, a convention that will be discussed in greater detail later in this study. Watt proclaims in his dissection of Finchers Neo Noir Blockbuster that the anti hero: Poses as the central character but does not follow the rules of society in the diegesis and contrasts heavily to the typical high concept hero. Fight Club immediately introduces the audience to the anti hero through a typical film noir convention of the introductory close up. Fincher has taken this convention to its extreme though and begins the film from literally inside the protagonists brain and then spirals out, disorientating the audience as they are forced to identify with this nameless character. Jack acts as the anti hero but his traits of the character type are expanded and again, took to their ultimate extreme. He does not trust anyone and is a loner, so much so that his name is never clearly identified and he is only recognised as Jack through the narrative voice over of I am Jacks wasted life (2002). The similarities between both the protagonist in Fight Club and Christopher Nolans Memento will be hugely evident when we analyse Nolans use of the anti-hero in his own Neo Noir epic. If we return briefly to the genre itself, many of the Neo-Noir films, especially of those created in the 70s and 80s, including for example Chinatown released in 1974, are what Lacey (2001) considers as pastiches that knowingly, and fondly, recreate the style of earlier noir cinema albeit in colour and with a modern sensibility. These films express a retro and nostalgic avoidance of contemporary experience with the intention of escaping from contemporary issues (cited by Wolfgang, 2003) Horsley (2002) corroborates this statement by arguing that in recent years one question is frequently raised in critical debate, pondering whether the fashionable trappings of neo-noir are themselves symptomatic of commercial postmodern nostalgia. He moves onto suggest that the sense that noir created in the 70s and 80s was a retro and nostalgic avoidance of contemporary experience has been encouraged by the often-cited essay, Postmodernism and Consumer Society, in which Frederic Jameson assigns to fi lm noir a central role in the vocabulary of commercialized postmodernism. However, Lacey (2001) claims that there are also numerous Neo Noir motion pictures which push the genre forward and avoid pastiche. One director whose films arguably fit this mould is Christopher Nolan, a writer and director whose work has instigated this very investigation. Leaving aside for the moment the matter of nostalgic pastiche it could be argued that Neo noir is not so much a genre of film but rather an identifiable visual style which has been adopted by a large number of contemporary film makers. As an aesthetic and ideological set of principles, the traditional conventions of noir are very visible in the works of modern auteurs: David Lynch, Michael Mann and David Fincher. However, there is still an obvious difference between both Film Noir and Neo noir as they each have their own underlying social and political context which undoubtedly affects a films perspective. As stated earlier, Film noir is very much a response to post war disillusionment and can be categorised into certain distinct phases, Neo noir on the other hand is far more difficult to isolate as the genre itself continues to evolve. Despite the 60s and 70s providing some telling illustrations of Neo noir, it was not until the early 80s that the genre gained widespread acceptance and credibility. This could arguably be down to the success of Ridley Scotts Blade Runner which would later be followed by other influential directors David Lynch (Blue Velvet, Mulholland Drive) and David Fincher (Seven, Fight Club). As Lee Horsley suggests: The contemporary refashioning of noir themes is a manifestation of the flexibility and responsiveness to social change that have characterised noir from its inception and of the continued vitality of the form. The transformations of the genre in neo-noir have helped to clarify some of the constant, recognisable elements of the noir vision, most importantly the moral ambivalence of the protagonist and his (or in neo-noir often her) ill-fated relationship with a wider society that itself is guilty of corruption and criminality. (Horsley, 2002) One director whose body of work notably contains recognisable elements of the noir vision is that of Christopher Nolan. Thanks to his unique, stylised, time-bending reformation of film noir conventions, Christopher Nolan has established himself as a creator of psychologically demanding films that defy categorization. When Nolan spoke to journalist Chris Roberts in October 2000 he was asked Have you always loved film noir?: Very much. Im a big fan, but interested in making those materials live for this time, this place. To create something new, whilst not abandoning the things I love about the genre. Which include the intrigue you can get out of that triangular relationship between three main characters. Who does what to whom is the driving force of both the narrative and the psychology. You judge them on their actions, rather than a lot of back-story and conversation. I just think it would be a marvellous thing for film-makers to have some of the narrative freedom that novelists have had for hundreds well, thousands of years. In other media, its always been accepted that you dont have to tell stories chronologically. In films, you have the flashback concept, but Stanley Kubrick and Nicolas Roeg were pioneering and pushing other boundaries in the Seventies, and it seems criminal to me not to keep using the freedoms they hard-earned. You should always be a little ahead of your time. I dont mean in a me dicinal, here-take-this-its- good-for-you way, but keeping people on their toes is a fun thing to do. Citizen Kane pushed things forward ambitiously, but in a real, instinctive, not gimmicky sense. And some of the aggressive, avant-garde devices Godard patented are accepted mainstream tricks now (Roberts, 2000). This insightful interview helps display some of Nolans key influences and motivations and yet the man himself remains in many respects an enigma. Before discussing the key conventions which comprise his work, lets begin with the man himself. Chapter 5 The Rise of Christopher Nolan More than a director Christopher Jonathan James Nolan was born in London on the 30th July 1970 as a child of a British Father and American Mother. Nolans introduction to film production began as early as seven when he began making war movies with his older brother using his fathers super 8mm camera and an assortment of male action figures. His passion for films increased with age whilst he is said to have been influenced to produce short science fiction films in the same vein of George Lucas space saga, Star Wars. After spending his childhood years residing in Chicago, Nolan returned to England to attend boarding school at Haileybury College, he then progressed to University College London where he studied literature. While an undergraduate, Nolan shot the surreal shorts Tarantella and Doodlebug with young actor and friend Jeremy Theobold starring in the lead for both films. Theobold would also take up the role in Nolans first feature film, Following, a no-budget black-and-white movie produced in London over a one year period. This ultra-low budget indie received wide acclaim receiving numerous awards such as the prestigious Rotterdam International Film Festivals Tiger Award and the Slamdance Black White Award. Despite Nolans success within Europe, it wasnt until he wrote and directed Memento (2000), a cult classic revenge story with its unique narrative structure, which held him up on the global stage. Hailed by critics, Nolans reputation almost changed overnight leading to him becoming a highly sought after talent. Returning in 2002 with Insomnia, a remake of Erik Skjoldbjaergs 1997 film of the same name, he proved he could direct some of the worlds top actors such as Al Pacino and Robin Williams. It was in 2005 however, with a reimagined take on a long-defunct film franchise, Batman, that propelled Nolan to the upper tier of Hollywood directors. His dark, brooding take on the avenging crusader was much more aligned with its original intention than any other subsequent incarnation. (Screenrush, 2010) With more recent box office successes, The Prestige (2006) and The Dark Knight (2008), Nolan has undoubtedly secured his reputation as a one of the top directors and writers working in Hollyw ood today. Now we know the man behind the lens, lets start dissecting the key conventions which comprise his work. We begin with Nolans use of the non-linear narrative. Chapter 6 Narrative More than a story. When Christopher Nolan released Memento in the autumn of 2000, few suspected the impact it would have on cinema goers worldwide and its significance not only on neo-noir as a genre, but also its effect on how audiences and critics perceive narrative within film. As a fragmented, non-linear narrative structure, Memento is a text which has received broad investigation in recent years. Its true meaning however, if in fact there is one, remains very much an enigma even a decade after its initial release. Nevertheless, the use of a non-linear narrative is nothing new, as stated earlier, as it has often been used in the past by noir directors to slowly reveal relationships among characters and circle the story back to a key precipitating event. What makes Memento special however is that its non-linear narrative structure puts the audience into the shoes of the protagonist. Through this device the viewers become detectives themselves. For the most part the audience struggle as much as Leonard does, creating a coherent narrative out of all the evidence they witness. Nolan gives the film noir genres tendency to confound the viewers expectations a conceptual twist by linking the flow of the narrative to the condition of the protagonist. (Wolfgang, 200 3) Memento would not be the first film Nolan would experiment with narrative structure as his first feature film, Following, applied this tool by using visual clues to aid the viewer in re-ordering the story chronology. This device would be something Nolan would return to in Memento, using the scratches on Leonards face as a marker-point for the time-line, rather than indicating the passing of day or night (Mottram, 2002, p.78). Christopher Nolan gives an insight into his trail of thought during the production process: When I had written the script, which seemed to work on the page, the feeling was if youre going to use this unconventional structure, such as the three time-lines in the Following, then my impulse at script stage was to teach the reader the structure, to do it very quickly with small scenes,

Is Sexual Orientation Genetic Sociology Essay

Is Sexual Orientation Genetic Sociology Essay In this modernised world sex and relationship plays an important role as sexuality is part of who we are as humans. Sexuality defines how we see ourselves and how we physically relate to others beyond having the ability to reproduce. Sexuality is made up of three components which include biological sex, gender identity, and social gender role. In a less brief context, biological sex is the anatomical, physiological, and genetic characteristics associated with being a male or female, gender identity means the physiological sense of being a male or female and social gender role is the cultural norms that define feminine and masculine behaviour (1). Sexual orientation is known as an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic and sexual attractions to men, women or both sexes besides also referring to a persons sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviours and memberships in a community of others who share those attractions which may or may not be evident in a persons appearance or behaviour. People may choose not to act on such feelings as having attractions to people of the same sex or opposite sex. For example, a bisexual who can be attracted to members of either sex may choose to have a one partner relationship with one gender, therefore, choosing not to act on the attraction of another gender (1). Three commonly recognized aspect of sexual orientation are heterosexuality, bisexuality, homosexuality and one uncommon aspect is asexuality which is when a person has no sexual attraction or interest in sexual activity. Therefore, sexual orientation differs from sexual behaviour in that it involves an individuals feelings and perception of their own sexuality. According to current scientific and professional understanding, the core attractions that form the basis for adult sexual orientation typically emerge between middle childhood and early adolescence. These patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction may arise without any prior sexual experience. Heterosexuality is the attraction to individuals of the other gender which is the cultural normality for the behaviour of males and females. For example, males and females being attracted to individuals of the opposite sex. Bisexuality is the attraction to members of either gender, as an example a male having a sexual relationship with another male partner as well with a female partner. On the other hand, homosexuality can be defined as the attraction to members of the same gender, are not completely understood by scientists. Scientists have pondered the theory for many years that sexual preference is a learned behaviour that is developed during early childhood. There are many theories regarding how a particular sexual orientation develops. Some scientists share the view that sexual orientation is shaped at an early age through interactions of biological, psychological and social factors. Other psychologists, psychiatrists and mental health professionals agree that homosexuality may be genetically predetermined. Research over the past thirty-five years has determined that homosexuality is not an illness, mental disorder or emotional problem. Other objective research shows that homosexual orientation is not associated with emotional or social problems. Because sexual orientation develops in early adolescence, without any prior sexual experience, it is believed that it is not chosen. It has been reported that some people try diligently to change their sexual preference from homosexual to heterosexual with no success. For this reason, psychologists do not consider sexual orientation to be a conscious choice that can be voluntarily changed. An untrue stereotype about homosexuals is the belief that gay men have more of a tendency than heterosexual men to sexually molest children. There is no evidence of this. Instead, recent studies have shown that homosexual parents are quite capable of rearing developmentally secure children who are intelligent, as well as being psychologically well adjusted. There is no evidence that homosexual parents are less capable of parenting than heterosexual parents. Because therapy cannot change sexual orientation, it is important for society to become better educated about homosexuality, thus diminishing anti-gay prejudice. Accurate information for young people struggling with their own sexual identity is especially important. The belief that such information when given to young people will affect ones sexual orientation is not valid. The people who have the most positive attitudes toward gay men and lesbians are those who say they know one or more gay persons well. For this reason, psychiatrists believe that discrimination against homosexuality is based on his or her lack of knowledge concerning gay people. Therefore, educating all people about sexual orientation and homosexuality is likely to diminish anti-gay prejudice. Homosexuality was once believed to be a mental illness, due to the unfortunate fact that mental health professionals furnished society with incorrect information. Most studies about homosexuals only involved gay men and lesbians who were in therapy. They were seeking help for their problems, just as straight men and women do. These studies, and the misunderstanding of homosexuality, seriously damaged the acceptance of gay men and lesbians. The theories of homosexuals by psychologists, psychiatrists and other mental health professionals, painted an untrue portrait of gay men and lesbians. This unfair portrayal directly attributed to the un-acceptance of homosexuals. In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association confirmed that homosexuals were not mentally ill, and it was not until two years later in 1975, that the American Psychological Association passed a resolution supporting this confirmation. Both associations urged all mental health professionals to help dispel the stigma of mental illness that had been associated with homosexual orientation. Since this original declassification of homosexuality as a mental disorder, this decision has been reaffirmed by additional research findings and by both associations. However, when one is reared to believe a certain way, it is not easy to change his or her opinion. Psychiatrists, psychologists and the Lord above could urge one to rethink a learned fact; however, to dispute a theory learned early in life is sometimes impossible. This unfair discrimination against homosexuals is an obstacle to their leading a normal, happy and productive life, which is the desire of gay men and lesbians, just as it is the desire of straight men and women. Research has shown a high rate of violence, as well as discrimination, against homosexuals. Just as it is with straight men, the more positive the gay male identity, the better ones mental health will become and the higher ones self-esteem will be. To accomplish this, the acceptance of gay men and lesbians as productive citizens, without prejudice, is necessary. Protection against violence and discrimination would not be necessary if one understood that gay men and lesbians are just like you and me; the only differ ence is their sexual preference. Most scientists today agree that sexual orientation is the result of a combination of environmental, hormonal, and genetic factors. In other words, there are many factors that contribute to a persons sexual orientation, and the factors may be different for different people. In other words, we intend to research in depth on each factor stated and how does it affect a persons sexual orientation then come to a conclusion if sexual orientation is genetic relating back to our topic. This is the prime objective of this project. To arrive at our objectives, we have to research about the other factors affecting sexual orientation. Therefore, we have divided each factor into 3 subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 will be a detailed explanation on how genetic factors contribute to sexual orientation. Chapter 3 consequently will be discussing on environmental and emotional factors in relation to sexual orientation. Besides that, Chapter 4 is on the role played by hormones in determining a persons sexual orientation. All these 3 chapters will be discussing sexual orientation on homosexuality and bisexuality. The final chapter will relate back to our main topic which is Is Sexual Orientation Genetic? A conclusion will be brought about based on the research, studies and evidences done on the previous 3 chapters. Chapter 2 : Genetic Factors Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types which is autosomes and sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes contain certain genetic traits link to a persons sex. It can be XX with phenotype female and XY with phenotype male. On the other hand, the autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. Both autosomes and sex chromosomes act in the same way during cell division. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes of which 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosome giving a total of 46 per cell for one human. A persons sex is determined by the sex chromosome (wiki chromosome). Based on a research conducted by scientists on November 8th 2007, new evidences have been uncovered showing genetics has a role to play in determining whether an individual is homosexual or heterosexual. Dr. Sandra Witelson, a neuroscientist in the Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine at McMaster University, and colleges at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre in Toronto conducted the research on studies of the brains of healthy, right handed, 18 to 35- year old homosexual and heterosexual men using magnetic resonance imagining (MRI). About 10 years ago, which is now accepted as fact, studies have demonstrated that there is a higher proportion of left-handers in the homosexual population than the general population. Consequently, in other research it was found that left-handers have a larger region of the posterior corpus callosum which is the thick band of nerve fibres connecting the two hemispheres of the brain compared to the right- handers. Furthermore, the posterior part of the c orpus callosum is larger in homosexual than heterosexual men. The size of corpus callosum is largely inherited suggesting a genetic factor in sexual orientation. A correlational analysis by researchers which included size of the corpus callosum, and test scores on language, visual spatial and finger dexterity tests. Prediction on sexual orientation in 95 per cent of the cases was done by using all these variables. A report by the National Cancer Institute researchers states that the appearance that many homosexual men inherit a gene from their mothers that influences sexual orientation. It was suggested that inherited genetic factors at least play a role in determining sexual orientation. The studys lead author Dean Hamer, chief of the cancer institutes section on Gene Structure and regulation concluded that it is basically not a choice or a decision to be a gay. However, people have no control over the genes inherited and there is no way to change it. The family histories of 114 gay men were studied and it was found that more homosexual brothers, uncles and male cousins than would be expected in the general population whereby some families had three generations of homosexual relatives. It was suggested that something inherited was going on since the uncles and cousins were not raised in the same household but do share genetic information. Following up another studies was made on the DNA from 40 pairs of homosexual brothers and it was found that 33 of them shared same genetic markers on the X chromosome in a region known as Xq28. The X chromosomes are always inherited from mothers. Genes consist of tiny coils of DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, which carries the instructions to manufacture a particular body substance. No such similar sharing was present in the same region among heterosexual men. It is expected that this region will be important for both heterosexual and homosexual development providing very small and subtle difference between the genes of each group. However, the finding does not explain all homosexuality. Seven out of 40 pairs of homosexual brothers studied did not have the common genetic factor. Part of the studies state that the cancer Kaposis sarcoma unusually afflicts large numbers of homosexuals. Further study is being conducted to determine whether a similar genetic link occurs in families of homosexual women hoping to identify the specific gene involved in sexual orientation. Gregory King, spokesman for the Human Rights Campaign Fund, a gay and lesbian activist group, said he hoped from the studies it would help Americans understand that most lesbian and gay people do not choose their sexual orientation. Despite, concerns are there among people who are lesbians and gay that this discovery will be misused to suggest that homosexuality is something that needs to be corrected. According to the variation in sexual orientation, heritability studies have differed on the precise contribution of genetics, though a few linkage studies have indicated a possible role for certain genes on the X chromosome. However, the strength of that evidence is limited due to the conflicting nature of the reports and small sample sizes. Some of the questions in relation to the possible genetic underpinnings of sexual orientation have been clarified by a more recent study conducted by the first ever genome-wide association study (GWAS) on sexual orientation. It is also in relation to the release of a web-based survey to the large 23andMe database of over 180,000 individuals. Furthermore, the other non-genetic phenotypes associated with sexual orientation are also explored. The objective is to understand the relationship between sexual orientation and non-genetic phenotypes as the data collected was extracted from dozens of 23andMe surveys taking into consideration thousands of conditions and trait. Research has shown that lesbians are more likely than heterosexual women to have alcoholism and alcohol-related problems (3). A number of studies have also found that women with same sex partners are more likely to have psychiatric disorders, including major depression (4) and men with same sex partners are more likely to have anxiety and mood disorders (5). Phenotype analyses were conducted using linear or logistic regression. In statistics, linear regression is the relationship between a scalar dependent variable Y and one or more explanatory variables denoted X as the data modelled using linear predictor functions, and unknown model parameters are estimated from the data. Logistic regression is a type of analysis used to predict the outcome of a categorical dependent variable based on one or more predictor variables that is used in estimating empirical values of the parameters in a qualitative response model(wiki). The reported betas are the change on the sexual identity scale per unit of the other phenotype. Both the phenotype analyses and GWAS analyses controlled for age, the first five principal components, and attitudes towards homosexuality as collected in the Sexual Orientation Survey. GWAS analyses were conducted in individuals of European descent. The questions asked for this study to over 23,000 individuals 23andMe database is as follows: The survey counts based on the questions asked were as below: They have examined the correlation between sexual identity and ~1000 phenotypes already characterized in the 23andMe database through other surveys. These analyses were preliminary as outliers or confounders beyond what is listed in the methods were not checked. Previous  ¬Ã‚ ndings were replicated showing a positive association between lesbians and alcoholism, and between lesbians and gay men and several psychiatric conditions. Chapter 3 : Environmental and Emotional Factors On the development of human sexual orientation, another possible factor is the environmental and emotional influences. Many influences or factors lead to sexual orientation but no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors. Therefore, a great deal of people thinks nature and nurture both play complex roles (wiki environment sexual orientation). Environmental factors are associated with family influences. Evidence have been provided by researches that gay men report having had less loving and more rejecting fathers, and closer relationships with their mothers, than non-gay men. Some researchers think this may indicate that childhood family experiences are important determinants to homosexuality, or that parents behave this way in response to gender-variant traits in a child. Both possibilities might be true in different cases (wiki). Childhood factors do affect marital choices as children who experience parental divorce are less likely to marry heterosexually than those growing up in intact families. In a broad point of view, heterosexual marriage was significantly linked to having young parents, small age differences between parents, stable parental relationships, large sibships (a group of offspring having the same two parents) , and late birth order. For men, homosexual marriage was associated with having older mothers, divorced parents, absent fathers, and being the youngest child. On the other hand, for women, maternal death during adolescence and being the only or youngest child or the only girl in the family increased the likelihood of homosexual marriage. Childhood family experiences are important determinants of heterosexual and homosexual marriage decisions in adulthood (http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10508-006-9062-2). Consequently, parental sexual orientation may affect child development. Studies were focused on an early research on children with lesbian and gay parents in which the children had been born in the context of a heterosexual marriage. The developments among children of divorced lesbian mothers were compared with children of divorced heterosexual mothers and few significant differences were found. Children in the research who had been born into homes with married mothers and fathers have no obvious reasons to understand on their healthy development as the children faced early exposure to apparently heterosexual male and female role models which mainly contributes to the healthy development. In comparison, a study conducted by Charlotte J. Patterson from University of Virginia on lesbian or gay parents who rear infants and children from offspring and it is important that the children had never lived with heterosexual parents. The study was on a group of 4 to 9 year old children who had been born to or adopted early in life by lesbian mothers. Results from in-home interviews and also from questionnaires showed that children had regular contact with a wide range of adults of both genders, both within and outside of their families. The childrens self-concepts and preferences for same-gender playmates and activities were much like those of other children their ages. Moreover, standardized measures of social competence and of behaviour problems, such as those from the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL), showed that they scored within the range of normal variation for a representative sample of same-aged American children. Therefore, it was clear from this study and others like it that it was quite possible for lesbian mothers to rear healthy children. Consistent with earlier findings, results from the study revealed few differences in adjustment between adolescents living with same-sex parents and those living with opposite-sex parents . There were no significant differences between teenagers living with same-sex parents and those living with other-sex parents on self-reported assessments of psychological well-being, such as self-esteem and anxiety, measures of school outcomes, such as grade point averages and trouble in school, or measures of family relationships, such as parental warmth and care from adults and peers. Adolescents in the two groups were equally likely to say that they had been involved in a romantic relationship in the last 18 months, and they were equally likely to report having engaged in sexual intercourse. The only statistically reliable difference between the two groups is that those with same-sex parents felt a greater sense of connection to people at school compared to the youngsters living with same-sex c ouples. There were no significant differences in self-reported substance use, delinquency, or peer victimization between those reared by same or other-sex couples. Although the gender of parents partners was not an important predictor of adolescent well-being, other aspects of family relationships were significantly associated with teenagers adjustment. Consistent with other findings about adolescent development, the qualities of family relationships rather than the gender of parents partners were consistently related to adolescent outcomes. Parents who reported having close relationships with their offspring had adolescents who reported more favourable adjustment. The fact that children of lesbian mothers generally develop in healthy ways should not be taken to suggest that no challenges were encountered. Many investigators have remarked upon the fact that children of lesbian and gay parents may encounter anti-gay sentiments in their daily lives. For example, in a study of 10- year-old children born to lesbian mothers, Gartrell, Deck, Rodas, Peyser, and Banks (2005) reported that a substantial minority had encountered anti-gay sentiments among their peers. Those who had such encounters were likely to report having felt angry, upset, or sad about these experiences. Children of lesbian and gay parents may be exposed to prejudice against their parents in some settings, and this may be painful for them, but evidence for the idea that such encounters affect childrens overall adjustment is lacking. Another study, published in the October 2006 issue of Archives of Sexual Behaviour, authored by Danish epidemiologist Morten Frisch and statistician Anders Hviid, reports the analysis of data from over two million men and women. It is the first study to examine an entire group of homosexuals for environmental factors in their decisions to marry homosexually. The research suggests a link between environmental factors such as geographic birthplace and family relationships and the probability of marrying a same-sex or opposite-sex partner. The massive study also finds that the number of brothers and sisters increases the probability of marrying heterosexually. This finding questions a recent, widely touted Canadian study of birth order that found the number of older brothers increased the probably of homosexuality in men. The researchers found for each additional year ones parents stay married, the probability of heterosexual marriage in the children increased by 1.6% among sons and 1.0% among daughters. In contrast, the rate of homosexual unions decreased by 1.8% among sons and 1.4% among daughters for every year of intact parental marriage. Summing these effects over years of childhood and adolescence contributes to a noteworthy impact. Regarding homosexual marriages, researchers have also found that birth place relates to the sexual orientation of marriage partner. Being born in urban settings increased the probability of homosexual marriage and decreased the probability of heterosexual marriage. This study was said to be the first to show that birth place or some correlate thereof influences marital choices in adulthood. The researchers also confirmed previous research suggesting that children who experience parental divorce are less likely to marry heterosexually than children reared in intact families. For men, unknown paternal identity, parental divorce, short duration of cohabitation with both parents, and long duration of father-absent cohabitation with mother were all associated with increased rates of homosexual marriage. For women, homosexual marriage rates were elevated among women whose parents were married briefly, and those who experienced long periods of mother absence due either to abandonment or death during the teen years. Taken together, the studys findings suggest that intact parents bearing multiple children and living in rural areas increase the probability of heterosexual pairings in their children. The study was not designed to examine all possible contributions to sexual orientation nor does it account for individual situations. We know, for instance, that gays and straights come from all kinds of families and locations. However, the study raises the possibility that family and social factors function to help shape adult sexual orientation. Chapter 4: Hormonal Factors Hormones are your bodys chemical messengers. It is released by one or more cells which travel through the bloodstream that affects cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In relation to sexuality following up the hormonal theory, exposure to certain hormones plays an act in fetal sex differentiation. Besides that, this exposure also influences the sexual orientation that emerges later in the adult. Hormones which interact with the developing brain cells coming from the differences in brain structure are accredit to be the basis of sex differences in countless behaviour, including sexual orientation. The interaction of these hormones on the developing brain is affected by prenatal factors that can influence later the sex-typed behaviour in children. Factors hypothesized in contributing to sex-typed behaviour concerns the same as those hypothesized to contribute to sexual orientation. Higher rates of sex-atypical behaviour in childhood and adulthood are seen in homosexual men and women compared to the same sex heterosexuals. Early hormones have been suggested to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-typed behaviours. Recent studies, however, have provided evidence in support of prenatal androgen exposure influencing childhood sex-typed behaviour. An example of the study is Early Hormonal Influences on Childhood Sex-Typed Activity and Playmate Preferences: Implications for the Development of Sexual Orientation. The hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) are examined. The children were in the range of ages between 2.5 to 12 years. It is observed that CAH girls preferred boys toys and activities and had greater preference for boy playmates than controls. On the other hand, CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls and activity and playmate preferences were not related. From this it was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences. Besides that, sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences, activity and playmate preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be comp lex. Consequently, prospective and retrospective studies of childhood gender role behaviour reveal homosexual males to be more likely than heterosexual males in the sense of participating in girls games, to experiment with cosmetics and jewellery and to be less likely than heterosexual males to participate in sports. In the same way, lesbians analytical report shows that they were more likely than heterosexual females in the manner of participating in sports, to be called a tomboy and to be less likely than heterosexual females as in experimenting with or using cosmetics and jewellery or even to wear dresses. From reports by Bailey Zucker, it was also known that homosexual men and women played with opposite sex playmates in childhood more that did heterosexual men and women. However, the differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals may not be confined to childhood activities. For example, in another report by McCormick Witelson, it is stated that heterosexual men have higher spatial ability and lower verbal ability compared to both homosexual men and heterosexual women. Besides that, a higher rate of left-handedness has been noticed in both homosexual men and women than heterosexual comparisons. Nonetheless, it is important to note that there are a few other sex-typed behaviours not related to sexual orientation. This is identified as most homosexual men and women have typical gender identity and are similar to same sex heterosexual individuals on aspects of mating psychology related to sexual selection that show sex differences, for example, interest in uncommitted sex. These comparisons are useful because sexual orientation differences that parallel sex differences suggest that some of the factors that cause sex differences also cause differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals of the same sex. This is because some homosexual individuals are as sex-typical as most heterosexuals, there may be more than one cause of sexual orientation. On the other hand, when sexual orientation differences do not parallel sex differences, different etiologies are likely. Gonadal hormones have been hypothesized to play a main role in the development of sex-typed behaviour and sexual orientation. Thus, high levels of androgen during sensitive periods of development have been suggested to produce masculine-typical behaviour, including childhood activities, cognitive abilities, and sexual orientation directed to women, that is, male heterosexuality and female homosexuality, whereas very low levels of androgen during those periods are hypothesized to result in female typical childhood activities, cognitive abilities, and sexual orientation directed to men, that is, male homosexuality and female heterosexuality. Human sex-typed behaviour is also affected by early exposure to hormones. Thus, female participants with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), who have high levels of androgen during the prenatal and early postnatal periods, have greater preference for traditionally masculine toys and activities, higher spatial ability, and greater rates of homosexual or bisexual fantasies than controls. Similarly, female participants exposed to high levels of masculinizing or defeminizing hormones as a result of maternal ingestion during pregnancy have been reported to be more aggressive and to have higher rates of homosexual or bisexual fantasies than controls. These increases in male typical behaviour which occur in the presence of female gender identity in both CAH girls and women and those with exogenous hormone exposure. Unusual hormone exposure in boys and men has complex relationships to behaviour. In relation, low androgen seems to result in reduced male typical behaviour. Male adolescents and adults with deficient androgen beginning early in life have shown reduced spatial ability compared with controls. High levels of masculinizing hormones have been associated with increased, decreased, and unchanged masculine typical behaviour. Male participants exposed to androgenizing progestin have been reported to be more aggressive than their brothers, but male participants with CAH and thus high levels of androgen generally show male typical behaviour. There are few systematic studies of sexual behaviour in men with unusual early hormone exposure, but homosexuality may be more common in men who are assumed to have low prenatal testosterone, for example, XXY men. There is evidence especially in female individuals that early hormone exposure affects both sexual orientation and some of the behaviors that are related to it, providing indirect support for the hypothesis that sexual orientation typically is influenced b